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Although Italy became a united country only in 1861, it has one of the oldest cultures in Europe. Italy's eras of greatness and artistic brilliance and the variety of its natural environments have attracted many travelers in search of beautiful art, landscapes, and places of religious importance. Rome, one of the world's oldest and most colorful cities, is the capital and largest city of Italy. Vatican City, the seat of the Roman Catholic church, lies within Rome. Two thousand years ago Italy was the heart of the mighty Roman Empire, which extended from Scotland to what is now Iraq, and south from the Rhine River to the Sahara desert in North Africa. After the decline and fall of the empire, Italy was divided into a number of large and small states, but it continued to occupy a place of leadership in commerce, on both land and sea, and in the arts. Modern finance, the foundations of banking and foreign trade, and the rebirth of European art and thought, called the Renaissance, spread from Italy to most of Europe. The unified Italy that emerged in 1861 lagged behind other European countries economically because of its scant natural resources. In World War I Italy gained some territory but continued to have economic problems. A Fascist dictatorship under Benito Mussolini led to a few temporary gains, but during World War II Italy was occupied by Germany and invaded by Allied forces. It suffered severe damage to some of its cities and a breakdown of its economy. With outside help Italy made up its losses, expanded its economy, and strengthened its democratic institutions to become one of the cornerstones of a strong, stable Western Europe. A founding member of the European Economic Community, Italy now ranks among the leading commercial and cultural nations of the Western world.
Italy is a peninsula that juts into the Mediterranean Sea from southern Europe. Its shape resembles a high boot. In the north, the wide top of the boot includes part of the Alps and also Italy's major plain, the Po Valley. The spur of the boot, on the eastern side of the country, is formed by the small, rugged Gargano peninsula. In the south, the heel, instep, and toe of the boot each make up a distinct region of Italy. Off the toe lies Sicily, Italy's largest island. The second largest Italian island, Sardinia, is in the Tyrrhenian Sea, opposite south-central Italy's western coast. The only other sizable island, also in the Tyrrhenian, is Elba, which served as Napoleon's place of exile. Much smaller Italian islands form groups the Pontine Islands near Naples; the Lipari, or Eolie, Islands off northeastern Sicily; and the Egadi Islands opposite Sicily's northwestern end. From northwest to southeast, Italy is a little more than 670 miles (1,080 kilometers) long. The widest part, in the north, measures about 350 miles (560 kilometers) from west to east. The rest of the peninsula varies in width from 100 to 150 miles (160 to 240 kilometers). Italy has a total area of about 116,000 square miles (300,400 square kilometers). Italy is a mountainous country, dominated by two large mountain systems the Alps in the north and the Apennines throughout the peninsula. The Alps, which are the highest mountains in Europe, extend in a great curve from the northwestern coast of Italy to the point where they merge with Austria and Slovenia in the east. The Maritime Alps are the beginning of the chain, just west of the port city of Genoa. Despite mighty peaks and steep-sided valleys, the Alps are pierced by mountain passes that have always allowed Italy to be in close contact with its northern neighbors. Highway and railroad tunnels provide year-round travel through the mountains, and the Alps are important as recreational areas in summer and winter. (See also Alps, The.) The Apennine mountain system is an eastern continuation of the Maritime Alps. It forms a long curve that makes up the backbone of the Italian peninsula. The Apennines extend across Italy in the north, follow the east coast across the central region, then turn toward the west coast, and, interrupted by the narrow Strait of Messina, continue into Sicily. (See also Apennines.) Italy has numerous smaller mountains, many of volcanic origin, and there are several extinct volcanoes. The only two active volcanoes on the European continent are in Italy Mount Vesuvius near Naples, and Mount Etna in Sicily.
Italians divide their country into four main parts. These parts are generally recognized as the following: (1) northern Italy, (2) central Italy, (3) southern Italy, and (4) the islands. Sometimes the islands are included as part of southern Italy. Northern Italy is dominated by the only extensive plain in the country, the lowland formed by the Po River and its tributaries. The Alps form the northern and western boundaries of the area, and the Apennines make up the southern boundary. In the east, northern Italy is open to the Adriatic Sea, and in the west there is access to the Ligurian Sea. Good soils and a climate favorable for farming are characteristic of the north. This section of Italy has the largest portion of the nation's population and is the leading agricultural and industrial area. Central Italy consists of the part of the peninsula that extends north of Rome. Although only a small part of the area is composed of lowlands, central Italy plays an important role in farming and in some branches of industry. Southern Italy includes the part of the peninsula south of a line drawn from Rome to the east coast. There are few lowlands in the area, and only two have importance in farming. One is the lowland surrounding Naples, and the other is the lowland of Apulia, the segment of the east coast that includes the heel of the Italian boot. The fourth region includes Sicily and Sardinia, as well as smaller island groups in the Mediterranean Sea. (See also Sardinia; Sicily.)
Italy's natural resources are limited. Only about 20 percent of the land considered adequate for farming is level. Italian farmers have terraced hillsides for gardens and small fields. Many farms, though too small to be considered worth farming in other countries, are worked to feed the farmers' families. Resources for industry are equally scarce. Oil and natural gas are produced primarily in the lower Po Valley, the southeastern portion of the peninsula, and parts of Sicily, but the output is extremely inadequate for a nation where motor transportation plays a vital role. While some coal is mined in the northwestern corner of northern Italy, for high-quality coal, as well as for oil and natural gas, Italy depends heavily on imports. However, hydroelectric power, from falling water, is so well developed in the Alpine valleys and in some valleys of the Apennines that almost all available sites produce electricity. Italy depends largely on imports for metals and minerals used by industry. There are, however, limited sources of bauxite in the Apulia region; iron ore on Elba; lead, zinc, and antimony on Sardinia; magnesium and asbestos in the Piedmont region; mercury in Tuscany; and sulfur in Sicily.
Climate. Most of Italy has a Mediterranean type of climate, which has cool, rainy winters and hot, dry summers. Winter temperatures along and near the coasts of southern Italy seldom drop to freezing in winter, and summer temperatures often reach 90 F (32 C) or higher. Winter is the rainy season, when streambeds that remain empty during much of the year fill to overflowing and flash floods are common. Summers are dry, and certain crops, especially fruits and vegetables, must be irrigated throughout much of the peninsula and on the islands. The climate of northern Italy differs greatly from that of the south. Winters tend to be cold, with heavy snowfall in the Alps, much rain, and fog. Summers are not as hot, and summer rains aid farming. Vegetation. Italy has at least three zones of differing vegetation: the Alps, the Po Valley, and the Mediterranean-Apennine area. From the foot of the Alps to their highest peaks, three bands of vegetation can be distinguished. First, around the Lombard lakes, the most common trees are the evergreen cork oak, the European olive, the cypress, and the cherry laurel. Slightly higher, on the mountain plain, the beech gives place gradually to the deciduous larch and the Norway spruce. In the high-altitude zone, twisted shrubs give way to pastureland with grasses and sedges and wildflowers. At the snow line grow innumerable mosses, lichens, and flags. In the Po Valley little remains of the original forests because agriculture and industry have supplanted most of the natural vegetation. Poplars predominate where there is abundant water, but in the drier zones there are a few sedges. On the upland plains heather abounds, and there are forests of Scotch pine. Water lilies are common on the banks of marshes. In the Apennine zone extending the length of the peninsula, a typical tree is the holm oak, while the area closer to the sea is characterized by the olive, oleander, carob, mastic, and the Aleppo pine. There is a notable development of pioneer sea grape on the coastal dunes. The Mediterranean foothill area is characterized by the cork oak and the Aleppo pine. Higher up, in southern Italy, there are still traces of the ancient mountain forest, with truffle oak, chestnut, flowering ash, Oriental oak, white poplar, and Oriental plane. Where the forests have been destroyed in the strictly Mediterranean section, a scrub called macchia has grown up. The Apennine pasturelands are very much like those of the Alps. The papyrus is quite common in Sicily as a freshwater plant. Animal life. In Italy, where people centuries ago occupied the best land and even the mountain pastures, very little of the original animal life survives. Wolves and other predators still live in the remote Apennine mountains. Chamois, lynx, ibex, mountain goats, brown bears, and European deer live in the national parks and wildlife preserves of the Alps and the Apennines. The land offers few resources to the people, and so small mammals and birds of all kinds have always been hunted for food. Alpine birds include the black grouse and golden eagle, and caves are inhabited by the greater horseshoe bat. The greatest variety of animal life is in the seas surrounding Italy. In recent decades, after centuries of intensive fishing, however, overfishing and pollution have started to reduce the quantity of marine life.
The Italian people are known to be among the most homogeneous, in language and religion, of all the European populations. The only significant minority group consists of several hundred thousand German-speaking people who live in the Alpine valleys in the north. Their region, called the Trentino-Alto Adige, is located in the upper valley of the Adige River, a tributary of the Po. It made up part of the Austrian province of Tyrol, and the people still refer to their homeland as the South Tyrol. They were incorporated into Italy after World War I, and both Italian and German are official languages in this region. The people, however, still maintain a separate identity. Two much smaller minority groups live in northern Italy. One of these groups, the Valdotains, also has two official languages, Italian and French. This group dwells in the Valle d'Aosta (Valley of Aosta) in the northwestern corner of the country. The other group speaks a Romance language called Romansh, or Ladin, which closely resembles Italian. These people live in northeastern Italy. About 95 percent of the Italian people speak Italian. For more than seven centuries the standard form of the language has been the one spoken in Tuscany, the region of central Italy centered around Florence. However, there are many dialects, some of which are difficult for non-Italians to understand, even if they have a good command of the language. At least two of the principal dialects, those of Sicily and Sardinia, may even be difficult for other Italians to comprehend. Television and radio together have helped to unify the country through the use of a common speech that the Italians call the "language of Tuscany as spoken in Rome." Rome is not only the capital of Italy but also the headquarters of the Italian radio and television network. Cities As recently as 1900, the three largest cities of Italy Rome, Milan, and Naples each had about 500,000 people. Much of the Italian population lived in very small towns and villages. More than half the people were farmers, and industry was concentrated in the northwestern part of the country. Italy's urban population has grown impressively since 1900. Rome, the largest city, had nearly 3 million people in 1990; Milan had about 1,500,000; and Naples, about 1,200,000. Since the late 19th century Italy has been a source of large numbers of emigrants. Prior to the 1920s most settled in North and South America. After World War II many moved to Australia. Hundreds of thousands of Italians are now temporary or permanent residents of Switzerland, France, and Germany. As Italian cities grew, the means of earning a living changed from agricultural to industrial employment. Less than 10 percent of the labor force now works in agriculture. The majority is employed in manufacturing, service occupations, commerce, and construction industries. (See also Bologna; Florence; Genoa; Milan; Naples; Palermo; Rome; Turin; Venice.)
By far the greatest number of Italians are Roman Catholics. Rome is the seat of the pope, the head of the Roman Catholic church. For centuries the city has attracted large numbers of pilgrims who come to visit Vatican City, an independent enclave. There they worship in St. Peter's Basilica, which stands next to the Papal Palace, the residence of the pope. Pilgrims also visit Assisi, the birthplace of St. Francis, and many other religious sites in Italy. In 1870 the new unified Italian state took over Rome and the surrounding area, which were the last remnants of what were once dominions of the pope. The reigning pope, Pius IX, refused to recognize the Italian state, and for half a century the popes considered themselves prisoners in the Papal Palace. In 1929 the Italian government and the church agreed to the Lateran Treaty and Concordat, which recognized the pope as sovereign ruler of an area smaller than a square mile. It is now known as the State of Vatican City, a walled area that also includes museums, the Vatican Gardens, a library, a radio station, and a railroad terminal. A group of buildings houses the central offices of the Roman Catholic church. (See also Vatican City; Vatican Councils.) Protestants compose a small minority. Across the country are old Jewish communities that survived persecution by Nazi Germany during World War II.
Literature. The beginnings of Italian literature can be traced to the 13th century. The Italian language, one of the Romance languages, has its origins in Latin as spoken during the later centuries of the Roman Empire. During the late 13th and early 14th centuries a group of poets and other writers began to use the "new, sweet style," which they called the language they wrote in to distinguish it from Latin. Latin continued to be used by the church, the government, and business. The three leading figures of the first flowering of Italian literature were Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio. Dante was the first to write in the Italian vernacular, and his symbolic poem, the 'Divine Comedy', bridges the gap between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (see Dante). Petrarch was the first great lyric poet to use the Italian language. Boccaccio was the first to write what are now called short stories (see Boccaccio). A second great flowering of Italian literature occurred during the 16th century. Its leaders were two poets, Ludovico Ariosto, who wrote about the age of chivalry, and Torquato Tasso, whose principal work dealt with the Crusades (see Ariosto; Tasso). The first important modern Italian novelist was Alessandro Manzoni, who wrote in the mid-19th century. Giosue Carducci and Gabriele D'Annunzio are perhaps the best-known Italian poets of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Carducci was the first Italian writer to win a Nobel prize; others were the novelist Grazia Deledda, the dramatist Luigi Pirandello, and the poets Salvatore Quasimodo and Eugenio Montale. (See also Italian Literature.) Visual arts. Italy is perhaps best known for its great heritage in the arts. The names of world-renowned Italian artists and architects would include those of Giotto, Donatello, Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Botticelli, and Bellini, to mention a few. Italian art goes back to the beginnings of the history of the peninsula. It started with the Etruscans, whose chief cities and art centers were in the middle of the peninsula, between Rome and Florence. At about the same time Greek cities flourished in southern Italy and Sicily. They left behind magnificent temples that still stand and statues that have been found through the centuries, some lifted from the sea. The legacy of Rome includes public structures that continue to be impressive because of their size and symmetry. Some are still in use, among them great outdoor theaters, groups of temples and public meeting places such as the Forum, and aqueducts that even today bring water to the city. After the downfall of the Roman Empire, the Byzantines ruled much of the southern and eastern regions of Italy. Their churches, like those of the 6th century in Ravenna near the east coast, retain their glorious mosaics and other decorations. The Renaissance, which began in 14th-century Italy, left the most extensive legacy of all. Churches, palaces, paintings, statues, and city squares are examples of the creative genius of the period. Rome, more than any other Italian city, also retains the works of baroque art that followed the Renaissance. Churches, paintings, and statues recall the splendor that Rome, the city of the popes and great patrons of the arts, represented to the leading artists of the late 16th and 17th centuries. The creative genius of Italy continued after the great ages of the Renaissance and the baroque. The works of modern Italian artists and architects impress countless visitors. The buildings designed by the architect Pier Luigi Nervi for the 1960 Olympic Games in Rome, and for other cities, rank among the finest contemporary architecture. (See also Architecture; Painting; Renaissance; Sculpture.) Music. Italy has a great tradition in music as well as in the other arts. The Gregorian chant, troubadour song, and the madrigal were forms in early Italian music, which was distinguished by the work of Palestrina and Monteverdi. These were followed by such important composers as Vivaldi, Alessandro and Domenico Scarlatti, and Cimarosa. In the 19th century Italian opera flowered with Rossini, Donizetti, Bellini, and, greatest of all, Giuseppe Verdi. Arrigo Boito and Giacomo Puccini continued the Verdian heritage. Afterward Verismo, or Realism, made itself felt in operatic tradition in the work of Pietro Mascagni. Since World War II, Italians who have made significant contributions include Luigi Dallapiccola and Luigi Nono. (See also Music, Classical; Opera.)
Education in Italy is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 14. Kindergartens have been promoted by the Roman Catholic church and other organizations. Elementary schools emphasize the mastery of basic skills. Secondary education offers both general and college-preparatory programs. Technical schools prepare students for certain trades, and teachers' colleges train men and women for the nation's classrooms. Italy has 27 state and private universities. The private universities are supported by the Roman Catholic church. The University of Bologna, founded about 1200, is Italy's oldest university and one of the oldest in the world. The largest is the University of Rome, with more than 140,000 students. Public health in Italy is maintained through a comprehensive state-sponsored medical program. This service is free to all citizens, who make minimum contributions for hospital treatments and examinations. Private and public hospitals serve all urban areas. The most important advance in public health in recent times has been the almost complete elimination of malaria, which was widespread for centuries throughout most of the country's lowland and coastal areas.
Italy suffered enormous damage during World War II, and its economy was a shambles. After the war the country was able to rebuild the economy with the assistance of the Marshall Plan and through membership in the Organization of European Economic Cooperation. Changes in structure occurred, mainly in agriculture, as a result of land reform and intensive state planning to increase farm production. In addition, many people moved from the poorer southern sections of Italy to the more prosperous areas of central and northern Italy. Measured in terms of overall production, Italy ranks fourth among the industrial nations of Western Europe after Germany, France, and Great Britain. The other three countries have long been among the world's leading industrial nations, but Italy has had an important place in the world economy only since the 1950s.
The number of people employed in agriculture throughout the world has fallen during the 20th century, but farming remains important in Italy for both employment and the economy. The leading farm products include wheat for flour, olives to provide cooking oil, and grapes to be pressed for wine. Wheat flour is used in making bread and pasta, one of the chief Italian foods. Corn and rice are important in northern Italian cooking. Other leading crops in that part of the country are fruits and vegetables. Farmers in central and southern Italy also raise fruits and vegetables during the short, mild winters there, and these products have a ready market in the countries of the European Community. Poultry, sheep, and pigs are the principal livestock raised by Italian farmers, followed by cattle and goats. Horses and donkeys were once important as draft animals and for transportation, but they have sharply decreased in number. Land reform. Until the 1950s much of central and southern Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia were among the last aristocratic European strongholds of large-scale landowners. The estates of these landowners covered many thousands of acres and employed only small numbers of laborers, mostly at harvesttime. Landless peasants, who had no work during much of the year, lived in nearby villages and small towns; large numbers of them emigrated to find better employment and living conditions. In the early 1950s the Italian parliament passed special land-reform laws to change the situation. Much of the land held in large private estates was divided into small farms and distributed to the peasants. The new owners were given substantial government support for their first years on the land, and the previous owners received cash compensation. Thousands of new small farms were created in this way during the 1950s, and farm production, as a result of the land reform and other measures, rose quickly. The Italian government not only invested large sums of money in land reform but at the same time also carried out other measures to help the farmers. New roads were built to help carry produce to market, and new irrigation systems, needed during the long, dry summers, were constructed. Warehouses and cold storage facilities for farm products were provided, and the government also introduced new crops. For example, flower growers in The Netherlands began to send seeds to southern Italy, where they could start growing early while the fields of Holland might still be covered with snow. In spring, Italian growers ship the young plants back north for final growth. As a result of these changes, farming in central and especially southern Italy became its most prosperous.
Italy's forests have long suffered from unplanned cutting and heavy soil erosion. Reclamation of former forested areas is in progress, and timber is harvested only after it has reached maturity. Forested areas have increased in size since the 1940s. Fishing along Italy's long coastline has been a significant industry since the beginning of the peninsula's history. The nation's fishing fleet operates near and far from shore and brings the catch to ports of all sizes. Some species of fish have suffered heavily from indiscriminate fishing. For example, tuna was once a major part of the catch but has almost disappeared from the coastal waters surrounding Sicily. The Italian diet includes many kinds of fishes and shellfishes, and fresh fish can be bought daily almost everywhere.
Italian industry is organized very differently from that of most countries. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, which affected all nations, Italy's banks suffered heavy losses. The Italian government, in an effort to prop up the economy, took over the management of the banks and formed holding companies. The largest state holding company, called the Industrial Reconstruction Institute (IRI), was formed in the early 1930s. The IRI and other holding companies hold interests in a wide variety of enterprises ranging from steel mills and shipyards to the national airline. In addition, they control many corporations, including ones producing computer software, electronics, and automobiles. This diverse ownership of companies has made the Italian state the largest business employer in the country. Italy also has state monopolies. For example, the railroads, the postal system, sales of tobacco and salt, and most of the generation and distribution of electricity are completely controlled by the government. The three main parts of Italy differ greatly in their industry and agriculture. Northern Italy has by far the healthiest economy, with the largest share of industry, the best farms, and the highest incomes among farmers, workers, and employees in service industries. Central Italy is less fortunate, and southern Italy is the poorest section. These differences in income levels and, as a result, in living standards have existed for centuries. During the period from 1945 to 1950, the government began an effort to improve the economies of southern Italy and portions of central Italy by large-scale investments. The investment fund for southern Italy is supported partly by government revenues and partly by help from other nations, including Italy's partners in the Economic Communities (EC) and, in earlier years, the United States. This fund makes investments in farming and public works, and it extends help to industries wishing to build new plants in central and southern Italy.
The production of steel and of electric power plays a large role in determining the level of a nation's industrial output. In the early 1980s Italy ranked second only to West Germany among European steel producers, and fourth after West Germany, the United Kingdom, and France in the production of electric power. Iron and steel form the basis of much of Italy's industry. Italy is Europe's leading maker of home appliances and one of the five leading automobile manufacturers in the world. Other products include ships, tools, hardware, ball bearings, electrical equipment, printing machinery, and precision tools. Italian ports serve as major gateways for oil and gas imported by the nations of Western Europe. Chemical and petrochemical industries operate in all major Italian ports, such as Venice, Genoa, Bari, and Naples. A long tradition of fine craftsmanship led to the rise of Italy's precision industries. The Olivetti Corporation is a world leader in the production of office machinery, typewriters, and computers. Textiles are another traditional industry that now operates on a large scale. Italy has long been known for its fine silks, and the nation also produces large quantities of woolens and synthetic fabrics. The Italian government plays a leading part in the field of energy production. The National Hydrocarbons Agency (ENI) acquired a monopoly on all oil and natural gas in the Po Basin. Using profits from the sale of natural gas, it expanded and began to operate filling stations, motels, and pipelines. The ENI also operates industrial plants, petrochemical works, refineries, and tankers. In addition to its important role at home, this government corporation participates in oil exploration and production, especially in the Middle East. For centuries Italians have been skillful workers in marble and stone and expert designers and builders of churches, palaces, public buildings, and roads. As a result, Italian firms have undertaken major construction projects throughout the world. These companies have built such facilities as hydroelectric dams, ports, and pipelines in many countries. The skill of Italian engineers is equally well known. The largest complete automobile manufacturing plant in Russia was designed by the Fiat company of Turin. In the early 1980s the government began a remarkably daring and innovative engineering project to divert the flow of lava from Mount Etna. Past eruptions have been disastrous to nearby towns.
Hundreds of thousands of skillful Italian artisans are the heirs of a 2,000-year tradition of artistry. Their products fashioned of leather, gold, silver, glass, and silk are widely sought by tourists who flock to such cities as Florence, Rome, and Milan. Cameos made from seashells, an ancient Italian art form, are as popular today as they were in the days of the Roman Empire. The work of Italian artists and artisans is also exported for sale in the great department stores of France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Italian clothing designers are world famous, especially for precise tailoring, unusual knits, and the imaginative use of fur and leather. After World War II Italian motion pictures pioneered in realism to win numerous awards and international acclaim.
Foreign trade has increased greatly as a result of Italy's industrial growth and its membership in the EEC. Imports exceed exports in most years because Italy brings in some of its food, fuels, and raw materials, as well as certain types of machinery. As a rule, however, that trade deficit is more than balanced by income from tourists. Italy carries on about half of its foreign trade, both imports and exports, with the other EEC members.
The Italian railroad system, which is owned by the government, provides convenient transportation throughout the country. Ferries link the principal islands with the mainland, and those that travel between southernmost Italy and Sicily carry trains as well as cars, trucks, and people. The railroad system is most extensive in the north, but main lines run along both coasts, and other routes cross the peninsula in several places. The Simplon Tunnel, one of the world's longest railroad tunnels, connects Italy and Switzerland. Other rail lines follow routes across the Alps between Italy and France, Austria, and Slovenia. The world's first automobile expressways were built in northern Italy during the 1920s. Today Italy and Germany have the most extensive networks of fast, limited-access highways in Europe. Motorists can drive without encountering traffic lights or crossroads stopping only for border crossings, rest, or fuel from Belgium, The Netherlands, France, or Germany across the Alps all the way to Sicily. Two highway tunnels through the Alps, under the Great St. Bernard Pass and through Mont Blanc, enable motor vehicles to travel between Italy and the rest of Europe regardless of weather. The expressways, called autostradas, are superhighways and toll roads. They connect all major Italian cities and have contributed to the tremendous increase in tourist travel.
For centuries Italy's attractions have drawn people from other countries. Some come to visit Rome and its shrines of the Roman Catholic church. Others are attracted by the works of art created throughout Italy's long history. Tourists are lured not only by places of religious and artistic significance but also by the varied and beautiful landscape. The money spent by tourists contributes significantly to the Italian economy. Foreign currencies converted into Italian lire help pay for Italian imports. At the same time the tourist business is one of Italy's most important service branches because it employs people who work in restaurants, hotels, shops, and transportation. Most of the tourists come from Germany, Switzerland, Austria, France, Great Britain, and the United States.
When the unified Italian state came into existence on Feb. 18, 1861, its government was a constitutional monarchy. On June 2, 1946, the people voted for their nation to become a republic. A new constitution became effective on Jan. 1, 1948. The chief of state is the president, whom the parliament elects to a seven-year term. The president appoints the premier, who actually heads the government and decides its policies. The president has the power to dissolve parliament and represents the country on formal occasions, such as the signing of treaties. His appointment of the premier is subject to approval by parliament, and a vote of lack of confidence by either house of parliament requires the official to resign. The people elect the 630 members of the Chamber of Deputies and 315 members of the Senate to five-year terms. The president may appoint five additional senators. Italy is divided into 20 regions whose names, with few exceptions, date back to the time of the emperor Augustus at the beginning of the Christian era. The regions are subdivided into 94 provinces. Aosta, or the Valle d'Aosta, in northwestern Italy is a province as well as a region. Southeast of it lies the region of Piedmont, whose capital is Turin. The rest of northern Italy is divided by the Po River. North of the Po are the regions of Lombardy, Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, and Trentino-Alto Adige. South of the Po are Emilia-Romagna and Liguria. Central Italy consists of Tuscany, Marche, Umbria, and Lazio. The regions of southern Italy are Abruzzi, Molise, Campania, Apulia, Basilicata, and Calabria. Each of Italy's two large islands, Sicily and Sardinia, is a region. The constitution gives each region considerable freedom in running its own affairs, such as farming and tourism. However, the national government has basic powers of control over the regions. Italian politics, long controlled by the Fascist dictatorship that took over the country in 1922, burst into activity in 1945 following World War II. Numerous political parties sprang forth. A system of proportional representation designed to avoid totalitarian rule was set up. The conservative Christian Democratic Party has dominated politics from World War II into the 1990s, getting the largest slice of the vote, but it has often been forced into a governing alliance with other parties. For example, in the 1980s and 1990s the governing coalition was made up of four parties Christian Democrats, Socialists, Social Democrats, and Liberals. The Italian Communist party, renamed the Democratic Party of the Left in 1991, is the strongest party of the political left and usually gets the second largest number of votes in elections. Italy has had more than 40 governments since World War II, but the nation's well-established bureaucracy tends to hold the state together despite the political instability. After the 1992 elections there was a call for reform of the proportional representation system. Faced with a crippling budget deficit, deteriorating public services, and the strains of European integration beginning in 1993, Italy saw support grow for a stronger central government.
Italy has been a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) since the alliance was established in 1949. The country joined the United Nations in 1955. Italian statesmen, led by longtime Premier Alcide De Gasperi, played an important part in the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community and, later, of the EEC and the European Atomic Energy Commission, whose charters were signed in Rome in 1957. Through the years, Italy has been one of the world powers that provide political and economic leadership in the West. The nation maintains strong ties with the United States.
The mountain-ribbed Italian peninsula has been the scene of some of the most dramatic chapters in all history. Over the centuries one region and then another has taken the spotlight. The foot of the boot and Sicily were Greek outposts and centers of Hellenic civilization in the 8th century BC. Remains of their beautiful temples, theaters, and city walls still stand. In Tuscany the Etruscans made early advances in the arts and conquered neighboring peoples until they held a large part of the peninsula (see Etruscans). To the south the merchants of Latium settled on seven hills near the Tiber. This community became Rome, which rose to supremacy and extended its power until the Romans ruled the ancient world.
After the Roman emperor Constantine moved his capital to Constantinople in AD 330, the Western Roman Empire decayed and was overrun by waves of barbarians (see Goths; Huns; Lombards; Vandals). Political unity was shattered as rival rulers fought over fragments of Italian territory. Even Charlemagne, who had conquered the Lombard rulers and had himself crowned emperor in Rome in AD 800, could not check the disintegration (see Charlemagne). He allied himself with the Papacy and confirmed the pope's rectorship of cities taken from the Lombards. This was the beginning of the temporal sovereignty of the popes and added another power to those struggling for supremacy. Charlemagne's Holy Roman Empire fell apart after his death. It was refounded by the Saxon Otto I in 962, leaving Italy in nominal union with Germany. When Frederick Barbarossa attempted to assert his imperial rights in Italy in the 12th century, his advance was checked by a league of Lombard cities. These cities were granted self-government (see Holy Roman Empire; Frederick I).
Sicily and southern Italy had been conquered by the Muslims in the 9th century. Adventurers from Normandy gained control here in the 11th century. As the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and later the Kingdom of Naples, the region was a pawn of warring foreign princes (see Naples). In the north the city-states grew in wealth and power. They came to dominate the countryside while feudalism declined. They drew their riches from the produce of their fertile river valleys and from profits from commerce between the Orient and Europe. This trade flowed in by way of Venice and passed through other northern cities on its way across the Alps. Florence, Venice, Milan, and the Papacy became the strongest of the contending powers. The influence of the popes waned between 1305 and 1377 when the seat of the Papacy was in Avignon, France.
Under the patronage of the Papacy and of such wealthy and autocratic princes as the Medici of Florence, the scholars, writers, and artists of the city-states created the masterpieces of literature, art, and science that made the Italian Renaissance one of the most influential movements in history (see Renaissance; Medici). In this period were built splendid churches, palaces, and public buildings that won the admiration of the world. The beautiful cities were, however, filled with strife and unrest. Nobles took sides in the feuds of the Guelf and Ghibelline parties, and the renowned cities fell under the rule of despots (see Guelfs and Ghibellines).
In ways similar to ancient Greece, the rugged land of Italy lent itself to the growth of small states separated by mountains and rivers. The people in these city-states and the surrounding areas thought of themselves as Florentines or Venetians rather than as Italians. Their patriotic loyalty went to their city or duchy. The tiny republic of San Marino in the northeastern Apennines has remained through the centuries as a relic of this period. Although its 24 square miles are entirely surrounded by Italian soil, it is legally independent of Italy and claims to be the oldest state in Europe.
While Italy was torn by struggles between the local rulers and the Papacy, strong nations developed elsewhere in Europe. Disunited Italy became an area of war in the competition of the powers for European supremacy. French and Spanish rivalry over Italy began in 1494. Charles VIII of France valiantly fought his way through the peninsula to Naples (see Charles, Kings of France). By 1544 Charles I of Spain (Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor) had defeated the French three times and had become ruler of Sicily, Naples,and Milan (see Charles V). For centuries the states of Italy remained pawns. They passed from one to another of Europe's rulers through war, marriage, death, or treaty. The Papacy was, however, usually strong enough to protect its temporal power over the areas in central Italy known as the States of the Church, or Papal States. Many of the city-states had declined after the Turks cut the trade routes to the East. When they passed under foreign rule, their ill-governed, heavily taxed people had no voice in their transfer.
For some 150 years (1559-1713) Spain was the paramount power in Italy. The country was exhausted by war and burdened by taxation. Spain's influence was a deterrent to energy and initiative. The Treaty of Utrecht (1713), which ended the War of the Spanish Succession, established the Austrian Hapsburgs in the place of the Spanish as Italy's dominant power. The treaty makers parceled out Italian territory regardless of history or tradition to compensate the victors and to maintain the balance of power in Europe. (See also Austria-Hungary.) As time went by the Spanish sought to take back their former possessions. After the failure of a Spanish attack on Sicily in 1720, the duke of Savoy was required to exchange it for the island of Sardinia. Thus the dukes of Savoy became the kings of Sardinia. In 1734 Don Carlos, son of Philip V of Spain, conquered Naples and Sicily. He ruled the area as Charles III of Naples.
The late 18th century was a time of great contrast in Europe. Enormous wealth was held by the few while the masses lived in squalor and ignorance. The disparity was especially marked in Italy. Rome was a city of pomp and grandeur. Its treasures of art brought the wealthy and cultured from other lands. Venice was a playground, especially at Carnival time. The charm of Naples and the new excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum drew hosts of visitors to the south. Here the feudal system lingered on. The peasants were without rights or defenders. They lived in hovels and caves. Crime rates were shocking despite harsh laws and punishments.
Ideas of reform seeping in from other nations found some response among the intellectuals and the middle class. The concepts of liberty and equality stirring in France gained Italian adherents. On the eve of the French Revolution secret organizations in Italy had begun agitating for the overthrow of absolute rule. Many offered aid to Napoleon Bonaparte as he led his French forces in the conquest of Italy in the 1790s. Republics were founded in the wake of his swift advance. As time went by, however, there was bitter reaction among the Italians to their treatment under French occupation. They were angered at the brutality of the soldiers and the plundering of their art treasures by the French. After Napoleon's defeat most states went back to their former sovereigns. The rule of the Austrians in Lombardy and Venetia and that of the Spanish in Naples and Sicily were especially harsh.
Hatred of foreign rule mounted. With it grew the risorgimento, or movement for political unity. Such secret societies as the Carbonari (charcoal burners) plotted against the Austrians. The name of the Carbonari arose from their use of charcoal burners' huts for meeting places. Revolts in 1821 and 1831 were crushed by Austrian troops. Then the idealistic republican leader Giuseppe Mazzini organized his revolutionary society, Young Italy (see Mazzini). He called upon Charles Albert, king of Sardinia-Piedmont and a member of the ancient House of Savoy, to head a movement to liberate Italy. By early 1848 revolts had broken out in many regions, and constitutions had been granted to Naples, Piedmont, and Tuscany. While Charles Albert battled unsuccessfully against the Austrians at Custozza and Novara, Mazzini drove out the pope and set up a short-lived republic in Rome. Then the French came to the pope's aid and conquered Rome, while Austria quelled the revolt in the north. Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son Victor Emmanuel II (see Victor Emmanuel, Kings of Italy).
Under the able leadership of the shrewd diplomat Count Camillo di Cavour, the great minister of Victor Emmanuel, Sardinia-Piedmont grew strong in resources and in alliances (see Cavour). Cavour had learned that, genuine as was Italian patriotic fervor, Italy would never be unified without help from abroad. Therefore he cleverly won an alliance with Napoleon III of France, and in the spring of 1859 Austria was goaded into declaring war. France and Sardinia-Piedmont defeated Austria at Magenta and Solferino and so won Lombardy for a united Italy. Napoleon, however, hurriedly arranged matters with the Austrians, allowing them to retain Venetia. Cavour and Victor Emmanuel were clever enough to veil their disappointment and wait. Cavour arranged plebiscites in the small states that checkered north-central Italy. Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and Emilia voted to cast out their princes and join Sardinia-Piedmont, the victor from the north. Napoleon III consented to the arrangement after Savoy and Nice voted to join France.
The second step toward a united Italy came the next year when the famous soldier of fortune Giuseppe Garibaldi and his thousand red-shirted volunteers stormed the island of Sicily and then the rest of the Kingdom of Naples on the mainland. The people everywhere hailed him as a liberator, and the hated Bourbon king was driven out (see Garibaldi). There remained only the Papal States and Venetia to be joined to the new-made Italian nation when Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of Italy in February 1861. Venetia was gained in 1866, after Austria was defeated by Prussia in alliance with Italy. The Papal States alone were now outside the Italian kingdom, and the lack of that central strip of territory was a very real handicap.
French troops still guarded the pope's sovereignty, however, and Victor Emmanuel was too intelligent a pupil of Cavour (who had died in 1861) to attack the French and thus perhaps undo all that had been accomplished. Then in 1870 the Franco-Prussian War forced France to withdraw its soldiers from Rome. Immediately the Italian forces marched in. Pope Pius IX excommunicated the invaders and withdrew into the Vatican. There he and his successors remained "voluntary prisoners" until the Concordat of 1929, or Lateran Treaty, between Italy and the Holy See recognized the temporal power of the pope as sovereign ruler over Vatican City, covering 108.7 acres, and other small properties (see Vatican City).
Giant tasks lay before the new Italy. It was staggering under a load of debt and heavy taxation. Leaders of the various regions were in disagreement even in conflict. Citizens found it difficult to adopt the ways of parliamentary government after being so long under despotic rule. The breach between newly formed socialist parties and the old conservative and reactionary elements widened. Riots and disorder marked the later years of the 19th century. In spite of the many problems, however, an army and navy were built up; railroads, ports, and schools were constructed; and a merchant marine was developed. Manufacturing flourished. In 1900 King Umberto I, son of Victor Emmanuel II, was assassinated. His son, Victor Emmanuel III, succeeded to the throne (see Umberto I and II). Meanwhile Italian statesmen were attempting to gain territory in Africa for colonial expansion. On Africa's east coast they obtained two colonies of doubtful value, Eritrea and Italian Somaliland, and on the north coast they won Tripoli after a war with Turkey (1911-12). Italy had joined with Germany and Austria in the Triple Alliance in 1882. The Alliance weakened as Italy tended toward friendship with France and England. Austria's invasion of Serbia in 1914, after the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, flouted the terms of the agreement. Italy announced its neutrality, Aug. 2, 1914. In April 1915 it signed a secret treaty with the Allies (Russia, France, and England). The next month it stated that it had withdrawn from the Triple Alliance, and on May 23 the king declared war on Austria. Italy's share in the fruits of victory, when the old Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up, was territory formerly under Austrian rule. It included "unredeemed Italy" of the Trentino in the north and the peninsula of Istria at the head of the Adriatic. (See also World War I.)
Depression after the war brought strikes and riots, fomented by anarchists, socialists, and Communists. The government of Victor Emmanuel III seemed powerless. Bands of former servicemen roamed the country angry, embittered, dangerous eager to strike a blow against the evils which faced Italy, but they were unorganized and lawless. In these bands a new Italian "strong man," Benito Mussolini, saw his opportunity (see Mussolini). With his gift of eloquence he soon organized them into enthusiastic groups in each community, armed them, and set them to preserving order. They formed the nucleus of his black-shirted Fascist party, whose emblem was the fasces, the bundle of rods which had symbolized the authority of the Roman lictors. The party grew rapidly because Mussolini promised benefits to everyone. The poor hoped for reforms which would end unemployment, raise wages, and lower prices. The rich pictured Fascism as a bulwark against the Communism they feared. By Oct. 28, 1922, the Blackshirts, meeting in Naples, were strong enough to threaten to march on Rome and to seize the government. The king, fearing civil war, refused to proclaim martial law. The premier resigned and Mussolini was asked to form a government.
Within a few years Mussolini had reorganized the government so that the people had no voice in it. He was Il Duce (The Leader), and all power rested in him. The king was retained as a figurehead because he was revered by the people and had the support of many wealthy and important families. Mussolini first abolished all parties except the Fascist and took from the Chamber of Deputies the power to consider any laws not proposed by him. In 1939 he replaced it with the Chamber of Fasces and Corporations, composed of all the members of his Council of Corporations and of the National Council of the Fascist party. No semblance of popular rule remained. Mussolini named the prefects of the provinces and the mayors of the cities. All opposition was crushed. Suspected critics of the regime were sentenced to prison by special courts or were terrorized, tortured, or murdered by Blackshirt thugs. News was censored and public meetings could not be held without the government's permission. The new Fascist state was based on the doctrine that the welfare of the state is all-important and that the individual exists only for the state, owes everything to it, and has no right to protection against it. Mussolini's code was: "Everything within the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state." (See also Fascism.)
Mussolini longed to create a new Roman empire and to bring back Italy's lost glory. To this end he trained a large army and built up the Italian navy. In 1935 he attacked the weak, backward, and poorly defended African country of Ethiopia. It was conquered the following year (see Ethiopia). In October 1936 Italy began its partnership with Adolf Hitler's Germany. At Mussolini's invitation, the "Rome-Berlin Axis" was formed to oppose the power of France and England. The Axis helped Franco to victory in the Spanish Civil War. In April 1939 Italy invaded Albania, making it a protectorate. Italy and Germany then became formal military allies. (See also Albania; Spain.) But when Germany's program of aggression plunged it into war with England and France on Sept. 3, 1939, Italy at first adopted the position of a nonbelligerent. Not until French power had been destroyed did Mussolini join Germany in the war. Then, on June 10, 1940, Italian forces attacked southeastern France in a "stab-in-the-back" invasion.
Italy, however, lacked the military power, resources, and spirit for fighting a large-scale war. Within six months, Italian armies met defeat in Greece and North Africa. Italy then humbly accepted the armed aid of Germany. This military dependence soon grew into economic dependence, and Italy was forced to let Germany control its home affairs. Mussolini became a German puppet, and hard-pressed Italians fought only half-heartedly. After the Allies won all Italian territory in North Africa and invaded Sicily in July 1943, public unrest forced Mussolini to resign. He was arrested and held under guard. The constitutional monarchy was restored, with Marshal Pietro Badoglio as premier. Italy was already on the edge of collapse when the Allies invaded from Sicily, Sept. 3, 1943. After a token resistance, Italy surrendered unconditionally that same day. On October 13 it declared war on Germany. Meanwhile, Mussolini had been freed by German paratroops and had fled into German-held north Italy. There he established a "Republican Fascist State." In the next two years of war, the Allies slowly drove the Germans northward out of Italy. The entire length of the mountainous country became a bitter battleground (see World War II). Enemy forces surrendered in northern Italy, April 29, 1945. Mussolini was captured by partisans and shot. The end of the war found Italy with a large part of its industry and agriculture shattered. During the Nazi occupation, the Germans had commandeered supplies, almost stripping Italy. Bombing raids and the destructive tide of continuous battle ruined Italian factories, roads, docks, and entire villages. As the Germans retreated, they had wrecked remaining industries and transportation. People were cold, hungry, and jobless. The Allies contributed substantial quantities of food, clothing, and other supplies. The United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration gave more aid to Italy than to any other country. Reconstruction lagged, however, because of political turmoil and delay in drawing up a peace treaty.
While Italy was a battleground, parties representing many political views, from the extreme left to the far right, had sprung up. The more liberal parties demanded an end to the monarchy. Backed by the Allies, however, Victor Emmanuel III retained his sovereignty until the liberation of Rome in 1944. Then he delegated his power to his son Umberto. On May 9, 1946, Victor Emmanuel III formally abdicated in favor of his son, who reigned for less than one month as Umberto II. On June 2, 1946, the Italian people voted to found a republic. They also elected deputies to a Constituent Assembly to draft a new constitution.
Not until Feb. 10, 1947, was the peace treaty ready for Italy's signature. The treaty stripped Italy of its African empire of Libya, Italian Somaliland, and Eritrea. The pact also ceded the Dodecanese Islands to Greece, internationalized Trieste, made minor boundary changes with France, and gave some 3,000 square miles to Yugoslavia, including most of the Istrian peninsula. Italy had to pay 360 million dollars in reparations. It was also forced to restore independence to Ethiopia and Albania. South Tyrol, which Austria had been forced to cede after World War I, remained with Italy. The Italians felt that the treaty was harsh, since in 1943 the Allies had granted them the status of "cobelligerent." Italy was made trustee of Italian Somaliland in 1949 by the United Nations. The territory became part of the Somali Republic (now Somalia), which was proclaimed on July 1, 1960. Trieste was given to Italy in 1954 by agreement with Yugoslavia.
Italy's constitution became effective Jan. 1, 1948. Its provisions are discussed in this article in the section Government. The Fascist party and the monarchy were outlawed. Freedom of religion was guaranteed, but Catholicism remained the state religion. Italian leaders had the double task of creating a stable parliamentary system of government and restoring the economy. The war had sharpened Italy's old dilemma of supporting a large and growing population on insufficient land. The poverty-stricken south was a drag on the improving economy of the north. The populace demonstrated its frustrations with strikes and riots. The various political parties advanced their political and economic programs.
The Christian Democratic party has played the strongest role in the republic's political development since World War II and supplied most of the premiers. It was predominantly Roman Catholic, moderate, and pro-Western in viewpoint. The party was held together by opposition to Communism, though it contained members with left-of-center opinions and southern landowners and monarchists of the far right. Alcide de Gasperi served as premier from 1945 to 1953. Called the "premier of reconstruction," he skillfully organized coalition governments representing parties with middle-of-the-road policies. He was an ardent advocate of European unity. The Communist party was second in size in Italy and the largest Communist party in free Europe. Immediately after the war, it was estimated to have 2.5 million card-carrying members. Renamed the Democratic Party of the Left in 1991, the Communists found their share of the vote declining in the 1992 elections. Insurgent groups such as the Lombardy League seeking autonomy for wealthy northern Italy, the environmentalists, and the Neo-Fascists have taken votes from both the Christian Democrats and the former Communists. The Socialists make up the third largest party. They have participated in several coalition governments with the Christian Democrats.
Marshall Plan aid from the United States enabled Italy to rebuild its shattered economy and start on the road to recovery and development. In 1948 it joined the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (later replaced by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) to collaborate with other European countries in the aid program. Italy became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949 and the United Nations in 1955. In 1952 it became a founder state in the European Coal and Steel Community. The success of this organization led its six members Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and The Netherlands to found the European Economic Community (EEC), or Common Market, and the European Atomic Energy Community. They began operating Jan. 1, 1958. Initially the Italian economy was greatly stimulated by membership in the EEC. In 1971 Italy became the first member nation of the EEC to sign a trade agreement with the People's Republic of China. (See also Europe.)
Freed from Fascist economic policies, Italy made rapid postwar gains. Rehabilitation in the late 1940s and early 1950s was followed by a giant economic boom, but this was mainly due to spectacular gains in industrial production in the north. The underdeveloped south and the agricultural sector of the economy advanced little. The government instituted land-reform measures, the huge Fund for the South project, and other regional development programs. National ownership and operation of industrial and commercial enterprises were extended. During the mid-1960s Italy began to suffer from severe inflation. A government austerity program to combat this trend produced a decline in profits and a lag in investments. Devastating floods the worst in 700 years hit the country in 1966, ravaging one third of the land and causing losses of more than 1.5 billion dollars. Some of the priceless art treasures of Florence were irreparably damaged. In 1971 Italy had its largest economic recession since the country's post-World War II recovery. Strikes affected nearly every sector of the economy as the Italian workers demanded social reforms. The problems of inflation, unemployment, lack of housing, and unfavorable balance of payments continued in the 1970s. Nevertheless, the economy showed resiliency for the five-year period ending in 1976 with an increase in gross domestic production. Political terrorism escalated, culminating in March 1978. Aldo Moro, leader of the Christian Democratic party and former premier, was abducted by the Red Brigades, an extreme left-wing terrorist group. Moro was murdered by the group two months later. In Italy's worst natural disaster in more than 70 years, an earthquake killed more than 3,000 persons in the Naples area in 1980. Terrorism by the Red Brigades and other extremists also continued into the 1980s. In May 1981 a Turkish political dissident tried to kill Pope John Paul II in St. Peter's Square in Vatican City. The act reinforced a continuing belief among many Italians that their country was the target of subversion from abroad. Also in 1981 a corruption scandal involving hundreds of public servants who were allegedly members of a secret society erupted and brought down the government. For the first time in the 35-year history of the Italian republic a non-Christian Democratic premier was elected. However, the Christian Democrats regained their power in November 1982. Socialist Bettino Craxi served as premier from 1983 to 1987, the longest term of any Italian leader since World War II. Economic conditions in the early 1980s were affected by growing recession and rising inflation. The Vatican Bank and the Banco Ambrosiano of Milan, Italy's biggest private banking group, were involved in a major banking scandal that forced the liquidation of the private bank in 1982. Two natural disasters, an earthquake and a landslide, caused widespread damage in the regions of Perugia and Ancona in late 1982. In 1989 another bank became involved in a scandal when it was revealed that an American branch of the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro had loaned billions of dollars to Iraq. A severe drought occurred throughout Italy in the winter of 1989; in Venice some canals were unusable because water levels had dropped so low.
Official Name. Italian Republic. Capital. Rome. Italy. Italia, from Latin vituli (bull calves), sons of the bull god, name used by the Greeks for southwestern Italy and later by the Romans for the entire country. Coat of Arms. Adopted in 1946. A five-pointed star symbolizing unity set over a cogwheel representing industry, surrounded by a laurel and oak wreath; "Repubblica Italiana" appears on a ribbon. Anthem. 'Inno di Mameli' (words by G. Mameli; music by M. Novaro, 1847). NATURAL FEATURES Borders (excluding Sicily and Sardinia). Coast 3,015 miles (4,852 kilometers); land frontier 1,058 miles (1,703 kilometers). Natural Regions. Alps; Apennines; Po Valley. Major Ranges. Alps, Apennines. Notable Peaks. In Alps: Within Italy Gran Paradiso, 13,323 feet (4,061 meters); Monte Viso, 12,602 feet (3,841 meters); Presanella, 11,667 feet (3,556 meters); Monte Marmolada, 10,964 feet (3,342 meters). Partly in Italy Mont Blanc, 15,771 feet (4,807 meters); Monte Rosa (Dufourspitze), 15,203 feet (4,634 meters). Major Rivers. Adige, Arno, Po, Tiber, Volturno. Notable Lakes. Albano, Alleghe, Bolsena, Como, Garda, Iseo, Lesina, Lugano, Maggiore, Varano. Major Islands. Sardinia, Sicily. Climate. Mediterranean, with mild winters and hot, dry summers in central and southern regions. Alpine regions have cold, rainy winters; precipitation throughout the year. THE PEOPLE Population (1990 estimate). 57,512,000; 494.4 persons per square mile (190.9 persons per square kilometer); 65 percent urban, 35 percent rural. Vital Statistics (rate per 1,000 population). Births 9.9; deaths 9.3; marriages 5.5 Life Expectancy (at birth). Males 72.0 years; females 78.6 years. Major Language. Italian. Main Ethnic Groups. Italian, Austrian, Slovene, French. Major Religion. Roman Catholic. MAJOR CITIES (1990 estimate, city proper) Rome (2,803,931). Capital of Italy; cultural, commercial, religious, and political center; Roman Forum; Colosseum; Pantheon; Villa Borghese; Trevi Fountain; Vatican City. Milan (1,449,403). Leading financial, commercial, and industrial city; the Duomo; Pinacoteca di Brera; Brera Palace; La Scala; National Museum of Science and Technology. Naples (1,204,149). Leading port, educational, and financial center; Villa Nazionale; National Museum; National Gallery; Castel Nuovo; Conservatory of Music. Turin (1,002,180). Industrial and commercial city; road and rail junction; notable architecture; Egyptian Museum; Sabauda Gallery; Fiat automobile plant. Palermo (731,418). Capital of Sicily; port, industrial, educational, and cultural city; Archaeological Museum; Teatro (Theater) Massimo; National Gallery; Norman Palace; Royal Palace; Quattro Canti (Four Corners); churches of La Mortorana and San Giovanni degli Eremiti. Genoa (706,754). Leading port and industrial city; Royal Palace; Doges' Palace; cathedral of San Lorenzo. Bologna (417,410). Transportation, industrial, and agricultural center; University of Bologna; Bevilacqua Palace; Pinacoteca Nazionale (National Picture Gallery); church of San Petronio. Florence (413,069). Commercial, educational, cultural, and traditional handicraft center; Ponte Vecchio; Pitti Palace; National Museum; National Central Library; Galleria degli Uffizi Palace; Santa Maria del Fiore Cathedral; Medici Chapels; Boboli Gardens. Catania (366,226). Industrial center and port; Mount Etna; Ursino Castle; Duomo; Church of San Nicolo; elephant fountain. Bari (355,352). Port and agricultural center; Basilica of San Nicolo; Norman castle; archeological museum; cathedral. Venice (320,990). Port, commercial, and cultural city; Grand Canal; St. Mark's Square; St. Mark's Church; Doges' Palace; island of San Giorgio Maggiore; Bridge of Sighs. ECONOMY Chief Agricultural Products. Crops apples, corn (maize), grapes, olives, oranges, peaches, potatoes, tomatoes, wheat. Livestock cattle, goats, pigs, poultry, sheep. Chief Mined Products. Barites, bauxite, fluorspar, iron ores, lead ores, lignite, mercury ores, petroleum, pyrites, sulfur, zinc ores. Chief Manufactured Products. Caustic soda, fuel oil, motor cars, natural methane gas, pig iron, rolled iron, sewing machines, steel, sulfuric acid, synthetic ammonia, typewriters, wine. Chief Imports. Chemicals, food and live animals, iron ore, machinery and transport equipment, petroleum and petroleum products, pig iron, textile yarn and fabrics, wood, lumber, cork. Chief Exports. Chemicals, clothing, food, iron and steel, machinery, motor vehicles, metal manufactures, petroleum products. Monetary Unit. 1 lira = 100 centesimi. EDUCATION Public Schools. Free primary, secondary, and vocational education; Ministry of Education administers; 20 academic regions. Compulsory School Age. From 6 to 14. Literacy. 94 percent of population 15 years old and over. Leading Universities. Bologna, Cagliari, Catania, Ferrara, Florence, Genoa, Lecce, Macerata, Messina, Milan, Modena, Naples, Padua, Palermo, Parma, Pavia, Perugia, Pisa, Rome, Salerno, Sassari, Siena, Trieste, Turin, Udine, Venice. Notable Libraries. Ambrosian Library, Milan; Central Institute of the Union Catalogue of Italian Libraries and Bibliographical Information, Rome; National Central, Medici-Laurentian libraries, Florence; Vatican Apostolic Library, Vatican City. Notable Museums and Art Galleries. Capitoline Museum, Borghese Gallery, National Gallery of Modern Art, Rome; Palazzo Pitti Gallery, Uffizi Gallery, Florence; Vatican Museum, Vatican City. GOVERNMENT Form of Government. Democratic parliamentary republic. Constitution. Effective Jan. 1, 1948. Chief of State. President; elected to 7-year term by two-thirds majority of an electoral college consisting of all members of parliament and three representatives from each region. Head of Government. Premier; appointed by president. Legislature. Parliament; supreme legislative authority; consists of Chamber of Deputies, with 630 members elected for 5-year term, and Senate of the Republic, with 315 members elected for 5-year term. Executive. Council of Ministers (Cabinet); supreme executive authority: premier and ministers, all appointed by president. Judiciary. Constitutional Court; final authority on the constitutionality of legislation; 15 judges appointed for 9-year term 5 appointed by president of republic, 5 elected by parliament, and 5 elected by ordinary and administrative supreme courts. Supreme Council of the Magistracy, elected by parliament and by magistrates themselves; oversees administration of justice. Political Divisions. 20 regions (some autonomous with special statute Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Sardinia, Sicily, Trentino-Alto Adige, Aosta), 94 regions, 8,086 communes. Voting Qualifications. Men and women over 18 years of age may vote for Chamber of Deputies; those over 25 years of age may vote for Senate of the Republic. PLACES OF INTEREST Alps. Snowcapped range in north; sports and health resorts. Amalfi. Resort; picturesque coastal drive; cathedral of San Andrea; Chiostro del Paradiso (Cloister of Paradise). Assisi. Home of St. Francis; medieval streets and architecture; San Francesco church and convent; temple of Minerva. Cortina d'Ampezzo. Internationally famous winter sports and health resort in Dolomites; panoramic views. Dolomites. Tourists spot for winter sports and health resorts in mountains; Alpine meadows and lakes; Monte Marmolada, 10,964 feet (3,342 meters). Ercolano. Greek settlement with Roman ruins; Herculaneum (ancient city name), buried under volcanic ash of Vesuvius in AD 79. Island of Capri. Near Sorrento's eastern coast in Tyrrhenian Sea; varied flora; historical resort for Roman emperors; villas and beaches; Grotta Azzurra (Blue Grotto). Lakes Region. Northern Italy; Como, Garda, and Maggiore lakes; picturesque scenery; subtropical flora; sports and health resorts. Orvieto. White wine and agricultural center; cathedral of Orvieto; Palazzo del Popolo; Palazzo dei Papi; churches of San Andrea and San Domenico; iron, ceramics, and lace center. Ostia. Ancient Roman port and naval base; excavation site tours provide an example of Roman life. Paestum. Greek city founded in 600 BC; Greek ruins and rare classical Greek wall painting; Neptune and Ceres temples. Perugia. 14th- and 15th-century architecture; Etruscan remains; Galleria Nazionale dell'Umbria (National Gallery of Umbria); church of San Angelo; Maggiore Fountain; Piazza Quattro Novembre. Pisa. Birthplace of Galileo; Leaning Tower; Piazza del Duomo; Baptistery; Campo Santo, a Tuscan-Gothic style cemetery. Pompeii. Ancient city destroyed in AD 79 by Vesuvius; excavations provide examples of Roman life. Ravenna. Oil and gas center; 1st-century Roman naval base; medieval architecture; 6th-century mosaics; Theodoric and Dante's tombs; San Giovanni in Fonte (Baptistery of the Orthodox); churches of San Apollinare Nuovo and San Vitale. Riviera. Resorts and beaches along scenic Mediterranean coast; San Remo, oldest and largest winter health resort in country. San Marino. World's oldest and smallest independent republic situated on Monte Titano, 2,444 feet (745 meters); three castles on triple summits. Sardinia. Second largest island in Mediterranean; varied landscape; resorts on Costa Smeralda (Emerald Coast). Sicily. Largest island in Mediterranean; Europe's largest active volcano, Mount Etna, 11,053 feet (3,369 meters); ancient Greek cities, Agrigento, Gela, and Syracuse (Siracusa). Siena. Famous for medieval monuments, art treasures, and architecture; Piazza del Campo; House of St. Catherine. Tivoli. Roman monuments; Vesta and Sibyl temples; Renaissance landscape architecture; waterfalls and fountains; Villa d'Este. Trieste. Largest port in Adriatic Sea; Roman ruins; examples of 18th-century baroque and 19th-century neoclassical architecture; Miramare Castle. Vatican City. Ecclesiastical state and seat of Roman Catholic church in Rome; St. Peter's Square and Basilica; Vatican museums. Verona. Wealthy handicraft center for furniture making, wine making, metal and marble work; architectural center during Renaissance; Piazza delle Erbe; church of San Zeno Maggiore
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